Physical effects
Physical effects are defined as any subjective effect which directly effects a facet of a person's physical body.
Although many uncomfortable physical effects also technically fit into this definition, they are excluded from this category of effects as they have their own defining qualities which standard physical effects do not.
This page lists and describes the physical effects which can occur under the influence of certain psychoactive compounds. It also further organizes these effects into subcategories based on their features and behavior.
Physical amplifications
Physical amplifications are defined as any effect which intensifies a facet of one's physical body.
This page lists and describes the various physical amplifications which can occur under the influence of certain psychoactive compounds such as psychedelics.
Appetite intensification
Appetite intensification (also known as "the munchies") can be described as the experience of a distinct increase in a person's sense of hunger and appetite. This results in both an increased desire to eat food and an increased enjoyment of its taste.
Appetite intensification is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of orexigenic compounds, such as cannabinoids,[1] mirtazapine,[2] and quetiapine. However, it may also occur under the influence of other compounds such as GABAergic depressants, tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants, first-generation antihistamines, most antipsychotics, and many steroid hormones.
Bodily control enhancement
Bodily control enhancement can be described as feeling as if there has been a distinct increase in a person's ability to control their physical body with precision, balance, coordination, and dexterity. This results in the feeling that they can accurately control a much greater variety of muscles across their body with the tiniest of subtle mental triggers.
The experience of this effect is often subjectively interpreted by people as a profound and primal feeling of being put back in touch with the animal body.
Bodily control enhancement is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of stimulating psychedelics, such as LSD, 2C-B, and DOC. However, it may also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of other compounds such as traditional stimulants and light dosages of stimulating dissociatives.
Increased libido
Increased libido can be described as a distinct increase in feelings of sexual desire, the anticipation of sexual activity, and the likelihood that a person will view the context of a given situation as sexual in nature.[3][4] When experienced, this sensation is not overwhelming or out of control, but simply remains something that one is constantly aware of.
Increased libido is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as tactile intensification, and stimulation in a manner which can lead to greatly intensified feelings of sexual pleasure. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of stimulant compounds, particularly dopaminergic stimulants such as methamphetamine[5] and cocaine[6]. However, it may also occur under the influence of other compounds such as GABAergic depressants and psychedelics.
Increased respiration
Increased respiration also known as tachypnea is a cardiovascular response to the lungs to increase breathing so that the heart can receive more oxygen. With the rapid output of energy the body compensates by circulating more blood with oxygen, glucose and other essential cellular molecules to increase the bodies pace. Increased respiration can also be caused if the body lacks oxygen for an elongated period of time, in which the body needs to return to baseline so it compensates.
This effect is most noticeable in stimulating substances since the body needs to compensate for the accelerated energy output.
See Also
Stamina intensification
Stamina intensification can be described as an increased ability to engage in physically and mentally taxing activities without the development of fatigue. Although this effect is commonly mistaken for stimulation, it differs as it is not a direct increase in one's energy levels. Instead, it is an increase in one's resilience in performing an activity combined with a mitigation of general fatigue.
Psychoactive substances that directly increase a person's endurance without stimulation are known as actoprotectors. These are defined as "substances that enhance body stability against physical or mental loads without increasing oxygen consumption or heat production."[7] Although actoprotectors are extremely uncommon, there are many compounds which are capable of inducing stamina intensification alongside other effects such as stimulation, focus intensification, and motivation enhancement. These commonly include most stimulants such as amphetamine[8] and specific psychedelics[9] such as LSD.
Stimulation
Stimulation can be described as an increase in a person's physical energy levels which are interpreted as encouraging when it comes to wakefulness, movement, performing tasks, talkativeness, and general exercise.[10]
At lower levels, stimulation typically presents itself as encouraged more so than forced. This can be described as feeling distinctly energetic, but in a purely controllable fashion that does not overwhelm the person with involuntary movements should they choose to stop expending large amounts of energy. It is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as motivation enhancement, analysis enhancement, thought acceleration, focus enhancement, and appetite suppression in a manner which can result in a distinct increase in the person's overall productivity.
At higher levels, stimulation typically presents itself as forced more so than encouraged. This can be described as the effects of increased energy becoming so pronounced that the person will be incapable of relaxing and will feel an irresistible urge to perform some sort of physical task. It is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as thought disorganization, focus suppression, short term memory suppression, increased heart rate, teeth grinding, temporary erectile dysfunction, sweating, and dehydration in a manner which can lead to lead to a distinct decrease in the person's overall productivity.
Stimulation is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of stimulant compounds, particularly dopaminergic stimulants such as amphetamine, methylphenidate, MDMA, and cocaine. However, it may also occur under the influence of other compounds such as certain psychedelics and certain dissociatives.
Physical suppressions
Physical suppressions are defined as any subjective effect which decreases or reduces a facet of a person's physical body.
This page lists and describes the various physical enhancements which can occur under the influence of certain psychoactive compounds.
Appetite suppression
Appetite suppression can be described as the experience of a distinct decrease in a person's sense of hunger and appetite in a manner which can result in both a lesser desire to eat food and a decreased enjoyment of its taste.[11] This typically results in the person undergoing prolonged periods of time without eating food.
Depending on the intensity, this effect can result in a sense of complete disinterest or even disgust concerning food. At times, it can often result in physical discomfort (such as Nausea) when attempting to eat food. In cases of severe appetite suppression, it is often easier for a person to consume liquid food, such as protein shakes, in order to receive the nutrition needed to function.
Appetite suppression is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as stimulation or pain relief in a manner which can lead to feeling as if one either has enough energy to not need food or has enough anaesthesthia to not feel the pain of hunger. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of stimulant[12] compounds, such as amphetamine[13], methylphenidate,[14] nicotine,[15] MDMA,[16] and cocaine. However, it may also occur under the influence of other compounds such as opioids, psychedelics, and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). It is worth noting that if these substances are used for prolonged periods of time, weight loss often occurs as a result.
Cough suppression
Cough suppression can be described as a decreased desire and need to cough.[17][18] This is typically regarded as a positive effect which helps alleviate a pre-existing ailment. In certain contexts, it can also allow an individual to inhale much larger amounts of smoke than they would usually be able to, without accompanying pain or the desire to cough. However, it is worth noting that the efficacy of many over the counter cough medication is questionable, particularly in children.
Cough suppression is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of antitussive compounds such as, codeine[19], pholcodine, dextromethorphan[20], noscapine, and butamirate. However, it may also occur under the influence of certain antihistamines such as promethazine.
Decreased libido
Decreased libido can be described as a distinct decrease in feelings of sexual desire, the anticipation of sexual activity, and the likelihood that a person will view the context of a given situation as sexual in nature. When experienced, this effect can result in a general difficulty or complete inability to become aroused by sexual stimuli.
Decreased libido is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as emotion suppression, temporary erectile dysfunction, pain relief, and sedation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages a wide variety of compounds, such as, opioids, antipsychotics and SSRI's, and dissociatives.
Motor control loss
Motor control loss can be described as feeling as if there has been a distinct decrease in a person's ability to control their physical body with precision, balance, coordination, and dexterity.
At lower levels, this results in experiencing much more difficulty performing tasks which require movement of any sort. For example, simple tasks such as typing without making spelling errors, walking without staggering, or carrying a glass of water without spilling it may all become much more challenging. At higher levels, however, this state can move beyond subtle in its effects and become capable of completely disabling the person's ability to use any level of fine or gross motor control. This typically results in catatonic states in which a person cannot even walk without falling over.
Motor control loss is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as sedation and disinhibition. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of GABAergic depressant compounds, such as, alcohol, benzodiazepines, Carisoprodol, GHB, and phenibut. However, it may also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of other compounds such as dissociatives.
Nausea suppression
Nausea suppression can be described as a reduction in vomiting, stomach cramps, and general feelings of nausea.
A mostly comprehensive list of the most common substances which induce this effect can be found below:
5-HT3 receptor antagonists
-
Drugs which bind to 5-HT3 receptors in the central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract are known to reduce nausea by inhibiting binding to the receptor which induces vomiting.
- Dolasetron (Anzemet) can be administered in tablet form or in an injection.
- Granisetron (Kytril, Sancuso) can be administered in tablet (Kytril), oral solution (Kytril), injection (Kytril), or in a single transdermal patch to the upper arm (Sancuso).
- Ondansetron (Zofran) is administered in an oral tablet, orally dissolving tablet, orally dissolving film, or in an IV/IM injection.
- Tropisetron (Setrovel, Navoban) can be administered in oral capsules or in injection form.
- Palonosetron (Aloxi) can be administered in an injection or in oral capsules.
- Mirtazapine (Remeron) is an antidepressant that has antiemetic effects and is also a potent histamine H1 antagonist.
Cannabinoids
-
Cannabinoids are used in patients with cachexia, cytotoxic nausea, and vomiting or for those who are unresponsive to other agents. These may cause changes in perception, dizziness, and loss of coordination.
- Cannabis - In the United States, this is a Schedule I drug that is legalized in many states.
- Dronabinol (Marinol) is a Schedule III drug in the United States.
- Synthetic cannabinoids such as nabilone (Cesamet), the JWH series, or 5F-PB-22.
- Sativex is an oral spray containing THC and CBD. It is currently legal in Canada and a few countries in Europe, but is not legal in the United States.
Benzodiazepines
-
- Midazolam given at the onset of anaesthesia has been shown in recent trials to be as effective as ondansetron.
- Lorazepam is said to be very good as an adjunct treatment for nausea along with first line medications such as Compazine or Zofran.
Antihistamines
-
H1 histamine receptor antagonists are effective for many conditions including motion sickness, morning sickness in pregnancy, and to combat opioid nausea.
- Cyclizine
- Diphenhydramine (Benadryl)
- Dimenhydrinate (Gravol, Dramamine)
- Doxylamine
- Meclozine (Bonine, Antivert)
- Promethazine (Pentazine, Phenergan, Promacot) can be administered via a rectal suppository for adults and children over 2 years of age.
- Hydroxyzine
Miscellaneous
-
- Dicyclomine
- Trimethobenzamide
- Ginger contains the 5-HT3 antagonists gingerols and shogaols.
- Lemon essential oil is reported to be an effective anti-nausea agent. The oil can be consumed in a capsule or applied to the skin via a carrier oil.[21]
- Emetrol is claimed to be an effective antiemetic.
- Propofol given intravenously has been used in an acute care setting in hospitals as a rescue therapy for emesis.
- Peppermint is claimed to help nausea or stomach pain when added into tea or peppermint candies.
- Muscimol
- Ajwain is a popular nausea relieving spice in India, Ethiopia and Eritrea.
Orgasm suppression
Orgasm depression (formally known as anorgasmia) can be described as a difficulty or complete inability to achieve orgasm despite adequate sexual stimulation.[22] It can also include suppressed feelings during an orgasm or sexual pleasure.
This effect commonly occurs on opioids, gabapentinoids and dissociatives which have been reported to decrease one's ability to feel sexual pleasure, which may be attributed to their tactile suppressing effects or through some other biological mechanism.[citation needed] It is also a well-known side effect of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs).[23] It may also be a result of the effect known as difficulty urinating which can occur on certain stimulants and entactogens. This effect has been reported to occur alongside a decrease in the strength of one's kegel muscles, which may account for the inability to achieve ejaculation and orgasm within males.
Pain relief
Pain relief can be described as an effect which suppresses negative sensations such as aches and pains. This can occur through a variety of different pharmacological and subjective mechanisms such as blocking the physical sensations from reaching one's conscious faculties, by covering the sensation with feelings of physical and cognitive euphoria, or by directly targetting the body part which the sensation is arising from.[citation needed]
Pain relief is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as muscle relaxation, physical euphoria, and sedation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of a very wide variety of compounds, such as opioids, GABAergics, GABApentinoids, cannabinoids, dissociatives, muscle relaxants, and NSAID's.
Sedation
Sedation can be described as a decrease in a person's physical energy levels which are interpreted as discouraging when it comes to wakefulness, movement, performing tasks, talkativeness, and general exercise. At lower levels, sedation typically results in feelings of general relaxation and a loss of energy. At higher levels, however, sedation typically results in the person passing out into temporary unconsciousness.
This effect is capable of manifesting itself across the 4 different levels of intensity described below:
- Minimal sedation - At the lowest level, the person will feel subtly lower in energy and alertness. They will likely have an increased desire to sleep or at least relax in a manner which is typically possible to ignore.
- Moderate sedation - At this level, the person will begin to drift off to sleep. However, they will still respond to noises and physical sensations if they are particularly prominent or above usual noise levels.
- Deep sedation - At this level, the person will have drifted off into a deep sleep. They will typically be mostly unresponsive unless subjected to repeated or painful stimulation.
- General anaesthesia - At the highest level, the person will be completely unconscious. They will be completely unarousable even with repeated painful stimulus.
Sedation is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as muscle relaxation, thought deceleration, and sleepiness in a manner which further intensifies the person's feelings of relaxation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of depressant compounds, such as opioids, GABAergics, and antipsychotics. However, it may also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of other compounds such as cannabinoids and certain psychedelics.
Seizure suppression
Seizure suppression is an effect caused by drugs known as "anticonvulsants". These drugs prevent or reduce the severity and frequency of seizures in various types of epilepsy.
The different types of anticonvulsants may act on different receptors in the brain and have different modes of action. Two mechanisms that appear to be important in anticonvulsants are an enhancement of GABA action and inhibition of sodium channel activity. Other mechanisms are the inhibition of calcium channels and glutamate receptors.
Seizure suppression is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of certain GABAergic compounds and certain cannabinoids.
Physical alterations
Physical alterations are defined as any subjective effect which changes a facet of a person's physical body in a manner which does not involve a clearly definable enhancement or suppression.
This page lists and describes the various physical enhancements which can occur under the influence of certain psychoactive compounds.
Body odor alteration
Body odour alteration can be described as a distinct change in the body's natural odour that can occur in response to the ingestion of a psychoactive substance, nootropic, or medicine. Depending on the biochemical makeup of the substance the alterations in body odour can vary significantly.[citation needed]
Body odour alteration is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as increased perspiration and temperature regulation suppression. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of stimulant compounds, such as methamphetamine and mephedrone which are often said to result in an ammonia-like odor.
Bronchodilation
Bronchodilation can be described as the expansion of the bronchial air passages in the respiratory tract. A bronchodilator is a substance that dilates the bronchial tubes resulting in decreased resistance in the respiratory airway and increased airflow to the lungs. From a subjective standpoint, this effect makes it feel as if has become significantly easier and more comfortable to breathe.
Bronchodilation is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as stimulation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of stimulant compounds, such as amphetamine,[24] methamphetamine, and cocaine,[25]. These compounds were historically used often for treating asthma but are now rarely, if ever, used medically for their bronchodilation effect.
Changes in felt bodily form
Changes in felt bodily form can be described as feelings of the body shifting in its perceived physical shape, organization and form in a manner which is typically devoid of accompanying visual alterations. For example, feelings of the body folding into itself many times over, stretching, splitting into separate parts, expanding, or condensing into, over, and across itself in extremely complex forms are all entirely possible. It is worth noting that although this effect is usually perfectly comfortable to undergo, it can sometimes be somewhat uncomfortable under certain circumstances.
Changes in felt bodily form are often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as perspective hallucinations, perspective distortions, and changes in felt gravity. They are most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of hallucinogenic compounds, such as psychedelics, dissociatives, and Salvinorin A.
Changes in felt gravity
Changes in felt gravity can be described as feeling that the pull of gravity has shifted in its direction. For example, during this state one may feel as if they are floating forwards, backwards, upwards, downwards, or in an unspecifiable direction.
Changes in felt gravity are often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as geometry, internal hallucinations, and holes, spaces and voids. They are most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of hallucinogenic compounds, such as psychedelics, dissociatives, cannabinoids, and salvinorin A.
Excessive yawning
Excessive yawning can be described as the experience of repeated, intensified, overly frequent, and spontaneous yawning despite a complete absence of genuine sedation or sleepiness.
Excessive yawning is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as increased salivation and a runny nose. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of tryptamine psychedelic compounds, such as psilocybin, 4-AcO-DMT, 4-HO-MET, and ayahuasca.
Mouth numbing
Mouth numbing is a physical side effect of administering certain drugs sublingually (under the tongue) or buccally (via the cheeks and gum). The effect can be described as a distinct feeling of general numbness or tactile suppression around the tongue and mouth which can last for up to an hour after the drug has been administered.
The NBOMe series (25C-NBOMe, 25B-NBOMe, and 25I-NBOMe) cause this effect consistently and it is accompanied by a strong, unpleasant, metallic chemical taste immediately after sublingual absorption.
The stimulant known as cocaine also causes numbing of the tongue, gums, and mouth when administered sublingually. Many people test the purity of their cocaine by rubbing it in their mouth. This, however, is not a guarantee of the drug's quality as it is common for cocaine to be cut with various other numbing agents and local anesthetics, such as novocaine, lidocaine, or benzocaine, which mimic or add to cocaine's numbing effect.
Muscle relaxation
Muscle relaxation can be described as the experience of muscles losing their rigidity or tenseness while becoming relaxed and comfortable. This effect is particularly useful for those who are currently suffering from muscle spasms, pain, and hyperreflexia.
Muscle relaxation is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as sedation and anxiety suppression. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of depressant compounds, such as various benzodiazepines, GABAergics, and opioids. However, it can also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of cannabinoids.
Perception of bodily heaviness
Perception of bodily heaviness can be described as feeling as if one's body has significantly increased in its weight. This can result in feelings of slowness and sluggishness due to the body seeming difficult, uncomfortable, or impossible to move.
Perception of bodily heaviness is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as sedation and muscle relaxation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of depressant compounds, such as GABAergics, opioids, and antipsychotics. However, it can also occur under the influence of certain sedating psychedelics such as certain LSA, psilocybin, and 2C-C.
Perception of bodily lightness
Perception of bodily lightness can be described as feeling as if one's body has significantly decreased in its weight. This can result in feelings of increased energy and a general sense of bounciness due to the body seeming weightless and therefore effortless to move.
Perception of bodily lightness is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as stimulation and physical disconnection. It is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of dissociative compounds, such as ketamine, PCP, and DXM. However, it can also occur under the influence of certain stimulating psychedelics such as certain LSD, 4-HO-MET, and 2C-B.
Physical autonomy
Physical autonomy can be described as the experience of a person's own body performing simple or complex actions entirely of its own accord. Depending on the intensity, this results in the carrying out of a given task becoming partially to completely automatic in nature without the requirement of decision-making skills or attentive conscious input.
At lower levels, the effect is partially controllable by commanding the body with simple thoughts. For example, thoughts such as "go to the toilet" or "go drink a glass of water" can result in the body performing these actions autonomously. This can often help the person perform necessary physical actions such as tending to bodily functions or avoiding danger when they would otherwise be too incapable, unconscious, or distractible to perform them manually in their current state.
At higher levels, this effect no longer requires verbal commands and becomes entirely automatic. It's worth noting that although this technically results in a loss of cognitive control, the body only performs actions which the owner would have decided to perform were they capable of it themselves.
Physical autonomy is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as physical disconnection and cognitive disconnection. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of dissociative compounds, such as ketamine, PCP, and DXM. However, it can also occur to a lesser extent under the influence of heavy dosages of psychedelics such as LSD, psilocybin, and mescaline, as well as cannabinoids such as cannabis.
Physical euphoria
Physical euphoria can be described as feelings of pleasure and comfort within and across the body. This euphoria typically feels somewhat comparable to the endorphin rushes felt during states of excitement or love, the coziness of a comfortable bed, and the rush of an orgasm. The forcefulness of this effect can range from subtle in its strength to overwhelmingly pleasurable beyond even the most intense full body orgasm possible.
Physical euphoria is often accompanied by other coinciding effects such as cognitive euphoria and muscle relaxation. It is most commonly induced under the influence of heavy dosages of a wide variety of compounds, such as opioids, stimulants, and GABAergics. However, it can also occur in a more powerful although less consistent form under the influence of psychedelics and dissociatives.
Pupil constriction
Pupil constriction (also called pinpoint pupils or miosis) can be described as the reduction of the size of a person's pupils under normal lighting conditions. This typically decreases a person's ability to see in low light conditions.
Pupil constriction is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of opioid compounds, such as heroin, kratom, tramadol, and fentanyl.
Pupil dilation
Pupil dilation (also called mydriasis) can be described as the enlargement of the size of a person's pupils under normal lighting conditions. Normally, the pupil size increases in the dark and shrinks in the light, however, a dilated pupil will remain excessively large even in a bright environment.
Pupil dilation is most commonly induced under the influence of moderate dosages of a wide variety of serotonergic compounds, such as psychedelics, dissociatives, deliriants, entactogens, various stimulants[26] and some antidepressants.
See also
References
- ↑ Berry, E. M., Mechoulam, R. (August 2002). "Tetrahydrocannabinol and endocannabinoids in feeding and appetite". Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 95 (2): 185–190. doi:10.1016/S0163-7258(02)00257-7. ISSN 0163-7258.
- ↑ Montgomery, S. A. (1 December 1995). "Safety of mirtazapine: a review". International clinical psychopharmacology. 10 Suppl 4: 37–45. doi:10.1097/00004850-199512004-00006. ISSN 1473-5857.
- ↑ Makwana, S., Solanki, M., Raloti, S., Dikshit, R. (2013). "Evaluation of Recreational Use of Aphrodisiac Drugs and Its Consequences: An Online Questionnaire Based Study" (PDF). Int J Res Med. 2 (1): 51–59. ISSN 2320-2742.
- ↑ Sandroni, P. (October 2001). "Aphrodisiacs past and present: A historical review". Clinical Autonomic Research. 11 (5): 303–307. doi:10.1007/BF02332975. ISSN 0959-9851.
- ↑ Shahram, Vaziri, Kashani F, Lotfi (1 January 2010). "Effects Of Methamphetamine And Narcotics On The Increase Of Libido And Reckless Sexual Behavior". 4 (15): 81–91.
- ↑ Macdonald, P. T., Waldorf, D., Reinarman, C., Murphy, S. (July 1988). "Heavy Cocaine Use and Sexual Behavior". Journal of Drug Issues. 18 (3): 437–455. doi:10.1177/002204268801800309. ISSN 0022-0426.
- ↑ Oliynyk, S., Oh, S. (September 2012). "The Pharmacology of Actoprotectors: Practical Application for Improvement of Mental and Physical Performance". Biomolecules & Therapeutics. 20 (5): 446–456. doi:10.4062/biomolther.2012.20.5.446. ISSN 1976-9148.
- ↑ Morozova, E., Yoo, Y., Behrouzvaziri, A., Zaretskaia, M., Rusyniak, D., Zaretsky, D., Molkov, Y. (September 2016). "Amphetamine enhances endurance by increasing heat dissipation". Physiological Reports. 4 (17): e12955. doi:10.14814/phy2.12955. ISSN 2051-817X.
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- ↑ Treatment, C. for S. A. (1999). Chapter 2—How Stimulants Affect the Brain and Behavior. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).
- ↑ Silverstone, T. (June 1992). "Appetite Suppressants: A Review". Drugs. 43 (6): 820–836. doi:10.2165/00003495-199243060-00003. ISSN 0012-6667.
- ↑ Poulton, A. S., Hibbert, E. J., Champion, B. L., Nanan, R. K. H. (2016). "Stimulants for the Control of Hedonic Appetite". Frontiers in Pharmacology. 7. ISSN 1663-9812.
- ↑ Hsieh, Y.-S., Yang, S.-F., Kuo, D.-Y. (April 2005). "Amphetamine, an appetite suppressant, decreases neuropeptide Y immunoreactivity in rat hypothalamic paraventriculum". Regulatory Peptides. 127 (1–3): 169–176. doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2004.11.007. ISSN 0167-0115.
- ↑ Davis, C., Fattore, L., Kaplan, A. S., Carter, J. C., Levitan, R. D., Kennedy, J. L. (March 2012). "The suppression of appetite and food consumption by methylphenidate: the moderating effects of gender and weight status in healthy adults". The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 15 (02): 181–187. doi:10.1017/S1461145711001039. ISSN 1461-1457.
- ↑ Seeley, R. J., Sandoval, D. A. (July 2011). "Weight loss through smoking". Nature. 475 (7355): 176–177. doi:10.1038/475176a. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ↑ Francis, H. M., Kraushaar, N. J., Hunt, L. R., Cornish, J. L. (February 2011). "Serotonin 5-HT4 receptors in the nucleus accumbens are specifically involved in the appetite suppressant and not locomotor stimulant effects of MDMA ('ecstasy')". Psychopharmacology. 213 (2–3): 355–363. doi:10.1007/s00213-010-1982-9. ISSN 0033-3158.
- ↑ Smith, Susan M., Schroeder, Knut, Fahey, Tom (24 November 2014). "Over-the-counter (OTC) medications for acute cough in children and adults in community settings". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001831.pub5. ISSN 1465-1858.
- ↑ Malesker, M. A., Callahan-Lyon, P., Ireland, B., Irwin, R. S., Adams, T. M., Altman, K. W., Azoulay, E., Barker, A. F., Birring, S. S., Blackhall, F., Bolser, D. C., Boulet, L.-P., Braman, S. S., Brightling, C., Callahan-Lyon, P., Chang, A. B., Coté, A., Cowley, T., Davenport, P., Ebihara, S., El Solh, A. A., Escalante, P., Field, S. K., Fisher, D., French, C. T., Grant, C., Gibson, P., Gold, P., Harding, S. M., Harnden, A., Hill, A. T., Irwin, R. S., Kahrilas, P. J., Kavanagh, J., Keogh, K. A., Lai, K., Lane, A. P., Lim, K., Madison, J. M., Malesker, M. A., Mazzone, S., McGarvey, L., Molassoitis, A., Murad, M. H., Narasimhan, M., Newcombe, P., Nguyen, H. Q., Oppenheimer, J., Restrepo, M. I., Rosen, M., Rubin, B., Ryu, J. H., Smith, J., Tarlo, S. M., Turmel, J., Vertigan, A. E., Wang, G., Weinberger, M., Weir, K. (November 2017). "Pharmacologic and Nonpharmacologic Treatment for Acute Cough Associated With the Common Cold". Chest. 152 (5): 1021–1037. doi:10.1016/j.chest.2017.08.009. ISSN 0012-3692.
- ↑ Bolser, D. C., Davenport, P. W. (February 2007). "Codeine and cough: an ineffective gold standard". Current Opinion in Allergy & Clinical Immunology. 7 (1): 32–36. doi:10.1097/ACI.0b013e3280115145. ISSN 1528-4050.
- ↑ Dealleaume, L., Tweed, B., Neher, J. O. (October 2009). "Do OTC remedies relieve cough in acute URIs?". The Journal of Family Practice. 58 (10): 559a–c. ISSN 1533-7294.
- ↑ 69ron (2008). "Lemon essential oil: way more effective than ginger for treating nausea" Nature's Herb Forum.
- ↑ Brindley, G. S., Gillan, P. (April 1982). "Men and Women Who Do Not Have Orgasms". British Journal of Psychiatry. 140 (4): 351–356. doi:10.1192/bjp.140.4.351. ISSN 0007-1250.
- ↑ Ashton, A. K., Hamer, R., Rosen, R. C. (1 September 1997). "Serotonin reuptake inhibitor-induced sexual dysfunction and its treatment: A large-scale retrospective study of 596 psychiatric outpatients". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 23 (3): 165–175. doi:10.1080/00926239708403922. ISSN 0092-623X.
- ↑ Lowinson, J. H. (2005). Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780781734745.
- ↑ Streatfeild, D. (July 2003). Cocaine: An Unauthorized Biography. Macmillan. ISBN 9780312422264.
- ↑ Zuba, D. (February 2012). "Identification of cathinones and other active components of 'legal highs' by mass spectrometric methods". TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 32: 15–30. doi:10.1016/j.trac.2011.09.009. ISSN 0165-9936.