DMT

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Summary sheet: DMT
DMT
DMT.svg
Chemical Nomenclature
Common names DMT, N,N-DMT, Dmitry, The Glory, The Spirit Molecule
Substitutive name N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
Systematic name 2-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-N,N-dimethylethanamine
Class Membership
Psychoactive class Psychedelic
Chemical class Tryptamine
Routes of Administration

WARNING: Always start with lower doses due to differences between individual body weight, tolerance, metabolism, and personal sensitivity. See responsible use section.


Smoked
Dosage
Threshold 2 mg
Light 10 - 20 mg
Common 20 - 40 mg
Strong 40 - 60 mg
Heavy 60+ mg
Duration
Total 5 - 20 minutes
Onset 20 - 40 seconds
Come up 1 - 3 minutes
Peak 2 - 8 minutes
Offset 1 - 6 minutes
After effects 10 - 60 minutes









Intravenous
Dosage
Threshold 4 mg
Light 4 - 10 mg
Common 10 - 15 mg
Strong 15 - 20 mg
Heavy 20 mg +
Duration
Total 15 - 30 minutes
Onset 2 - 10 seconds
Come up 70 - 100 seconds
Peak 2 - 5 minutes
Offset 10 - 20 minutes

DISCLAIMER: PW's dosage information is gathered from users and resources for educational purposes only. It is not a recommendation and should be verified with other sources for accuracy.

Interactions
Cannabis
Stimulants
Tramadol
Lithium
Yellow-warning-sign1.svg

A trip sitter is recommended with this substance that often is smoked in heavy doses. Short-acting intense trips may cause mental and physical side effects days after the hit has been taken.

The overwhelming effects often require post-processing. It may take 2 days before physical side effects become noticeable, like shift in hearing. Using additional substances without a break (2 days + a few days to recover if you notice any side effects) increases the risk to get a bad post-trip.

N,N-Dimethyltryptamine (also known as DMT, N,N-DMT, Dmitri, and "The Spirit Molecule") is a classical psychedelic substance of the tryptamine class.[1] Among psychedelics, it is known for its unique ability to produce short-lived but intense visionary states and complete hallucinations. It is thought to produce its effects by binding to serotonin receptors in the brain, although the precise mechanism is not fully understood.

DMT is present in over 65 species of plants and has been identified as being a normal constituent of human metabolism and an endogenous neurotransmitter in certain rodents. Its presence is also known to be widespread throughout the plant kingdom.[2][3] Although various theories have been postulated, its neurobiological function has yet to be determined.[citation needed]

When vaporized or smoked, DMT produces short-lived effects with a very rapid onset that is sometimes described as an "inconceivably high-speed rollercoaster ride." When ingested in combination with a MAOI or RIMA agent, it becomes active orally and significantly longer lasting, immersive, and interactive in nature: this combination is known as pharmahuasca. See also ayahuasca.

Unlike most highly prohibited substances, DMT has not been proven to be addictive or physiologically toxic.[1][4] However, adverse reactions such as severe anxiety, delusions and psychosis are always possible, even for experienced users, and particularly for those predisposed to mental disorders.[5]

It is highly advised to use harm reduction practices if using this substance.

DMT Crystals[6]

History and culture

DMT was first synthesized in 1931 by the German chemist Richard Helmuth Fredrick Manske.[7][8] Its discovery as a natural product is generally credited to Brazilian chemist and microbiologist Oswaldo Gonçalves de Lima who, in 1946, isolated an alkaloid he named nigerina (nigerine) from the root bark of jurema preta (Mimosa tenuiflora).[8][9][10]

It was unequivocally identified in 1959, when American chemists were provided a sample of Mimosa tenuiflora.[10][11] In 1955, a team of American chemists led by Evan Horning isolated and formally identified DMT in the seeds and pods of Anadenanthera peregrina.[10][12]

Since 1955, the substance has been found in a host of organisms: in at least fifty plant species belonging to ten families,[2] and in at least four animal species, including one gorgonian[13] and three mammalian species.

Chemistry

Substitutive structure of a tryptamine molecule

DMT, or N,N-dimethyltryptamine, is a member of a family of organic compounds known as tryptamines. Tryptamines share a core structure consisting of a bicyclic indole heterocycle attached at R3 to an amino group via an ethyl side chain. DMT contains two methyl groups (CH3-) bound to the terminal amine RN at the end of this chain.

It has many homologs and analogs from base tryptamines like MET and DPT, to four and five position substituted variants such as 4-PO-DMT (psilocybin), 4-AcO-DMT (psilacetin), 5-HO-DMT (bufotenin), and 5-MeO-DMT.

Pure DMT is a white, crystalline solid that is often described as smelling like rubber. It is moderately soluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents and aqueous acids.[14]

Pharmacology

Further information: Serotonergic psychedelic

DMT's psychedelic effects are believed to come from its efficacy at the 5-HT2A receptor as a partial agonist. However, the role of these interactions and how they result in the psychedelic experience continues to remain elusive.

In addition to this, N,N-dimethyltryptamine is believed to be an endogenous ligand for the sigma receptor. However, the significance of the sigma-1 receptor remains the subject of ongoing scientific research.[15]

Variety of DMT methods and routes of administration

DMT is probably the drug that presents one of the most wide and varied methodology when it comes to methods and routes of administration. The followings are all the different ways in which DMT can be consumed: [16][17][18]

  • "Short DMT trip" consumptions:
    • Smoked/vaporized DMT crystals (from 10 to 60 mg; from 5 to 20 minutes)
    • Intravenous injection of DMT crystals (from 4 to 20 mg; from 10 to 30 minutes)
    • Smoked changa (dosage difficult to measure, recommended to follow smoked DMT dosage range; up to 35 minutes)
    • Intramuscular injection of DMT crystals (up to 80 mg; up to 45 minutes)
  • Ayahuasca and equivalent preparations consumptions:
    • Oral ingestion of MHRB (mimosa hostilis root bark) brew or plant material (up to 50 g of ~1.2% MHRB; up to 2.5 hours)[19]
    • Oral ingestion of ayahuasca or equivalent preparations, either liquid brew or solid plant material:
      • Harmalas-containing plant, frequently baniseriopsis caapi or peganum harmala (amount of plant material with an equivalence of 120 to 180 mg; up to 50 minutes prior to the ingestion of the DMT-containing brew or plant material, or simultaneously with it)
      • DMT-containing plant, frequently mimosa hostilis, acacia confusa or psychotria viridis (amount of plant material with an equivalence of 35 to 90 mg; from 5 to 8 hours)
  • "Long DMT trip" consumptions (for each: a co-administration through the same ROA of 70 to 120 mg of harmalas[20]; or an oral ingestion of either 120 to 180 mg of harmalas or an equivalent amount of harmalas-containing plant material; the latter from 70 to 30 minutes prior to the administration of DMT crystals):
    • Rectal administration of DMT crystals (from 15 to 70 mg; from 4.5 to 7 hours)[21]
    • Sublingual administration of DMT crystal (unknown dosage ranges, pressumed similar to those of rectal DMT; unknown duration)
    • Intranasal administration of DMT crystal (unkown dosage ranges, pressumed similar to those of rectal DMT; unknown duration)
  • Hypothetical "long DMT trip" consumptions (for each: an oral ingestion of either 120 to 180 mg of harmalas or an equivalent amount of harmalas-containing plant material):
    • Smoked/vaporized DMT crystals (from 10 to 60 mg; unknown duration, pressumed higher than that of changa)
    • Intravenous injection of DMT crystals (from 4 to 20 mg; unknown duration, assumed higher than that of intravenous DMT without prior harmalas ingestion)
    • Intramuscular injection of DMT crystals (up to 80 mg; unknown duration, assumed higher than that of intramuscular DMT without prior harmalas ingestion)

Limitations

  • Oral: Oral DMT is inactive because stomach enzymes called MAO enzymes break it down. To experience effects orally, DMT is frequently combined with MAO inhibitors (MAOIs), which prevent this breakdown. This combination is known as pharmahuasca. When the MAOIs and DMT are derived from plant extracts, it is referred to as ayahuasca.[22] Ayahuasca brews have been used traditionally in South America since at least around the year 1500.[23]
  • Insufflation (snorting): DMT absorbed through the nose may drip down your throat and be swallowed. If swallowed, it will be broken down in your stomach and have no effect.

Subjective effects

Depending on the dosage and method of administration, the effects of DMT can range from mild psychedelic states to powerfully immersive life-altering experiences which are often described as the ultimate displacement from ordinary consciousness in which users report experiencing ineffable spiritual realms or alternate dimensions. It's also commonly reported to encounter 'beings' of unknown origin after consuming a high dose of DMT. Terrence Mckenna and Dr. Rick Strassman have both studied and popularized this phenomenon. [24]

DMT in its smokeable form is reported to be the least mentally inebriating psychedelic. It is due to a lack of perceived intoxication that many people describe DMT as a genuine experience that is actually happening to them.

It is worth noting that many people report that smoked DMT is extremely clear-headed in its style and tends to produce less personal insight in comparison to orally active psychedelics such as ayahuasca, LSD and psilocybin due to its short-acting nature.

An important detail that must be considered is that the majority of the following information about the effects that DMT can produce is extracted almost entirely from reports of smoked DMT. It's completely possible to induce a DMT trip with the co-ingestion of a MAOI but employing a different ROA than oral (the latter reffered as ayahuasca or pharmahuasca), for example: rectal, sublingual or intranasal. Such methods of consumption will allow the DMT to avoid passing through the liver and also inhibe the action of the MAO enzimes, leading to "long DMT trips" that can provide a series of effects that are distinct to those of smoked DMT but that also differ slightly from classical ayahuasca experiences.

Disclaimer: The effects listed below cite the Subjective Effect Index (SEI), an open research literature based on anecdotal user reports and the personal analyses of PsychonautWiki contributors. As a result, they should be viewed with a healthy degree of skepticism.

It is also worth noting that these effects will not necessarily occur in a predictable or reliable manner, although higher doses are more liable to induce the full spectrum of effects. Likewise, adverse effects become increasingly likely with higher doses and may include addiction, severe injury, or death ☠.


Physical effects
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Visual effects
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Auditory effects
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Multi-sensory effects
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Cognitive effects
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Transpersonal effects
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Progressive stages

When smoked or vaporized at moderate to heavy dosages, the DMT experience consistently manifests itself in a progressive sequence which can be described as follows:

1. "Breaking Through"

The first step of a DMT trip is the come up that leads onto an experience commonly referred to as "breaking through." This seems to have at least a few different ways of presenting itself to the user.

The first thing that a person notices is an extremely distinct set of visual enhancements such an increase in visual acuity and colour intensity. This is followed by a sudden onset of high level 3 geometry which increases in its intensity until it envelopes and covers the external environment. These effects are often accompanied by auditory hallucinations such as soft crackling sounds or high pitched extended tones. There is also the possibility of accompanying physical sensations as one "breaks through." These can include feelings of suddenly being pushed through and onto the other side of a membrane or feelings of shooting through space at high speeds.

2. "The Waiting Room"

Almost immediately after a person has inhaled enough DMT to have "broken through", they often find themselves spending a brief amount of time in what is sometimes described as a psychedelic "waiting room" or "loading screen." The appearance of this space can assume a seemingly infinite variety of forms but generally appears in the shape of an enveloping tunnel comprised of rapidly shifting, interlocking geometry. This lasts approximately 10 – 20 seconds and feels qualitatively different from other stages of the experience.

3. "The Other Side"

Once the waiting period is over, the user will feel that they have "broken through" onto the other side. It is here where users experience intense level 7 geometry and level 3 - 4 internal hallucinations. It is worth noting that although experiences vary between individuals, DMT trips often follow common archetypes, scenarios, content, and plots. These scenarios generally consist of visiting what appears to be an alternate reality that is often described to contain autonomous entities, settings, sceneries, and landscapes as well as themes of a cosmic, transcendental, or transpersonal nature.

4. "Drifting Down"

The final stage is experienced as the sensation of being pulled further and further away from the scenario until it is no longer visible and one finds themselves back in reality. This is typically accompanied by level 3 - 4 geometry as well as a sense of general exhilaration and awe. The moderate to mild geometry stays for a further 10 – 15 minutes before disappearing completely, sometimes leaving a noticeable "body high" that lingers for up to an hour.

Experience reports

Anecdotal reports which describe the effects of this compound within our experience index include:

Additional experience reports can be found here:

Natural plant sources

Main article: DMT-containing plants

Mimosa hostilis root bark

Further information: Mimosa tenuiflora (botany)
Mimosa hostilis root bark.

Mimosa hostilis (also known as Mimosa tenuiflora, Jurema and Tepezcohuite) is a perennial tree or shrub native to the northeastern region of Brazil and is found as far north as southern Mexico. Around 1% of the dried weight is DMT. It is legal to purchase online in many parts of the world and a commonly used source for performing DMT extractions or brewing into ayahuasca.

Acacia confusa root bark.

Acacia confusa root bark

Further information: Psychoactive acacias

Acacia confusa (also known as Acacia Petit Feuille, Small Philippine Acacia, Formosa Acacia (Taiwan Acacia) and Formosan Koa) is a perennial tree native to South-East Asia. It is legal to purchase online and easily accessible in many parts of the world. The plant matter itself contains the following chemicals:[citation needed]

  • N-Methyltryptamine: 1.43% (not psychoactive without MAOI)
  • DMT: 1.15%

Preparation methods

Preparation methods for this substance found within our tutorial index include:

Research

Dr. Rick Strassman has hypothesized that the pineal gland is responsible for the production and release of DMT which he believes possibly could be excreted in large quantities at the moments of birth and death.[28] However, this view was contested by David E. Nichols in 2018, who argued that the pineal gland secretes insufficient amounts of DMT to produce psychoactive effects.[29]

In 2019, a study by Jimo Borjigin demonstrated in rat brains that brain neurons with the two enzymes required to make DMT were not just in the pineal gland but also in the neocortex and hippocampus.[30]

Near-death experience

A 2018 study found significant relationships between a DMT experience and a near-death experience.[26] A 2019 large-scale study found that ketamine, Salvia divinorum, and DMT (and other classical psychedelic substances) are linked to near-death experiences.[27]

Neurogenesis

In September 2020, an in vitro and in vivo study showed that DMT present in the ayahuasca infusion promotes neurogenesis.[25]

Neuroplasticity

In 2018, a study demonstrated neuroplasticity induced by DMT and other psychedelics through TrkB, mTOR, and 5-HT2A signaling.[31]

Reagent results

Exposing compounds to the reagents gives a colour change which is indicative of the compound under test.

Marquis Mecke Mandelin Liebermann Froehde Robadope Ehrlich Hofmann Simon's
Yellow - Orange - Brown Yellow - Green - Dark green (faint) Green - Brown Black No reaction No reaction Pink - magenta Yellow No reaction

Toxicity and harm potential

Ambulance2.png

This toxicity and harm potential section is a stub.

As a result, it may contain incomplete or even dangerously wrong information! You can help by expanding upon or correcting it.
Note: Always conduct independent research and use harm reduction practices if using this substance.

DMT is considered to be non-addictive, is not associated with any form of neurotoxicity, and has an extremely low toxicity relative to dose. As with other psychedelic substances, there are relatively few physical side effects associated with acute DMT exposure. Various studies have shown that in reasonable doses in a careful context, it has little to no negative cognitive, psychiatric or physical consequences.[9]

However, as with psychedelics generally, DMT is thought to be able to act as a potential trigger for those with underlying psychiatric conditions. Those with a personal or family history of mental illness are advised not to use this substance unless under medical supervision.

Despite the lack of physical risks, it is highly advised to approach this substance with extreme caution and harm reduction practices.

Lethal dosage

The median lethal dose (LD50) of DMT in humans has never been reached in any setting, nor is this expected to change due to its pharmacological properties.

Dependence and abuse potential

Like other serotonergic psychedelics, DMT is considered to be non-addictive with a low abuse potential.[9] There are no literature reports of successful attempts to train animals to self-administer DMT — an animal model predictive of abuse liability — indicating that it does not have the necessary pharmacology to either initiate or maintain dependence. Likewise, there is virtually no withdrawal syndrome when chronic use of DMT is stopped.[citation needed]

Notably, tolerance to the effects of DMT does not appear to occur. The reason for this is unknown. Likewise, DMT does not produce cross-tolerance with other psychedelics, meaning that after the consumption of DMT, psychedelics will not have a reduced effect.

Dangerous interactions

Warning: Many psychoactive substances that are reasonably safe to use on their own can suddenly become dangerous and even life-threatening when combined with certain other substances. The following list provides some known dangerous interactions (although it is not guaranteed to include all of them).

Always conduct independent research (e.g. Google, DuckDuckGo, PubMed) to ensure that a combination of two or more substances is safe to consume. Some of the listed interactions have been sourced from TripSit.

Legal status

Internationally, DMT is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance under the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, meaning that international trade in DMT is supposed to be closely monitored and its use is supposed to be restricted to scientific research and medical use. Natural materials containing DMT, including ayahuasca, are not regulated under the 1971 Psychotropic Convention.[33][34]

  • Australia: DMT is controlled under Schedule 9 of the Poisions Standard.[35] A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO."[36] Under the Misuse of Drugs act 1981 6.0 g of DMT is considered enough to determine a court of trial and 2.0 g is considered intent to sell and supply.[37] Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian Federal Government was considering changes to the Australian Criminal Code that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as "controlled plants".[38] DMT itself was already controlled under current laws. The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing Mescaline or Ephedrine. The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the official Floral Emblem of Australia, Acacia pycnantha (Golden Wattle), illegal. The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic value to native and/or religious people).[39]
  • Austria: DMT is illegal to possess, produce and sell under the SMG (Suchtmittelgesetz Österreich).[citation needed]
  • Belgium: DMT is illegal to possess, sell, purchase and import.[40]
  • Brazil: DMT is illegal to possess, produce and sell under Portaria SVS/MS nº 344.[41] Rules are relaxed regarding religious use.[citation needed]
  • Canada: DMT is listed in Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.[42]
  • Denmark: DMT is a Category B controlled substance.[43]
  • Estonia: DMT is a Schedule I controlled substance.[citation needed]
  • France: DMT is classified as a narcotic.[citation needed]
  • Hungary: DMT is illegal to possess, produce and sell.[citation needed]
  • Germany: DMT is controlled under Anlage I BtMG (Narcotics Act, Schedule I)[44] as of January 24, 1974.[45] It is illegal to manufacture, possess, import, export, buy, sell, procure or dispense it without a license.[46]
  • Ireland: DMT is a Schedule 1 controlled substance under the Misuse of Drugs Acts.[47]
  • Israel: DMT is an illegal substance. Production, trade and possession are prosecuted as crimes.[48]
  • India: DMT is illegal to produce, transport, trade in or possess.[49]
  • Italy: DMT is a Schedule I controlled substance.[50]
  • Latvia: DMT is a Schedule I controlled substance.[51]
  • The Netherlands: DMT is classified as a Lijst 1 (List I) controlled substance under the Opiumwet (Opium Law).[52]
  • New Zealand: DMT is classified in New Zealand as a Class A controlled substance under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975.[53]
  • Norway: DMT is a Schedule I controlled substance.[citation needed]
  • Russia: DMT is a список I (List I) contolled substance. It is illegal to possess, produce and sell.[54]
  • Serbia: DMT is a List 4 controlled substance.[citation needed]
  • Sweden: DMT is controlled under Förteckning I (Schedule 1).[55] The Swedish supreme court concluded in 2018 that possession of processed plant material containing a significant amount of DMT is illegal. However, possession of unprocessed such plant material was ruled legal.[citation needed]
  • Switzerland: DMT is a controlled substance specifically named under Verzeichnis D.[56]
  • United Kingdom: DMT is a Class A controlled substance.[57]
  • United States: DMT is a Schedule I controlled substance.[58] Rules are relaxed regarding religious use, however. In the US, dried root bark of Mimosa hostilis had been considered a "grey area" item for a long time. However, recent efforts by the DEA appear to be focusing on eliminating internet sales of the bark, citing 21 USC § 841, which states that "(IV) any compound, mixture, or preparation which contains any quantity of any of the substances referred to in subclauses (I) through (III)" is also considered an illegal substance. Many USA based vendors have since been stocking Acacia confusa bark as a result due to its very similar alkaloid content.[citation needed]
  • Czech Republic: DMT is a Schedule I controlled substance.[59]

See also

External links

Discussion

Literature

References

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  2. 2.0 2.1 Ott, Jonathan (1994). Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens (1st ed.). Kennewick, WA, USA: Natural Products. pp. 81–83. ISBN 978-0-9614234-5-2. OCLC 32895480. 
  3. Shulgin, Alexander; Shulgin, Ann (1997). "DMT is Everywhere". TiHKAL: The Continuation. United States: Transform Press. p. 277. ISBN 0-9630096-9-9. OCLC 38503252. 
  4. Lüscher, Christian; Ungless, Mark A. (2006). "The Mechanistic Classification of Addictive Drugs". PLOS Medicine. 3 (11). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0030437. ISSN 1549-1277. PMID 17105338. 
  5. Strassmann, Rick (1984). "Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs. A review of the literature". Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 172 (10): 577–595. doi:10.1097/00005053-198410000-00001. ISSN 0022-3018. OCLC 1754691. PMID 6384428. 
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  7. Manske R. H. F. (1931). "A synthesis of the methyltryptamines and some derivatives". Canadian Journal of Research. 5 (5): 592–600. doi:10.1139/cjr31-097. ISSN 0366-6581. 
  8. 8.0 8.1 Bigwood J.; Ott J. (1977). "DMT: the fifteen minute trip". Head. 2 (4): 56–61. Archived from the original on January 27, 2006. Retrieved November 28, 2010. 
  9. 9.00 9.01 9.02 9.03 9.04 9.05 9.06 9.07 9.08 9.09 9.10 9.11 Strassman, R. J.; Qualls, C. R.; Uhlenhuth, E. H.; Kellner, R. (1994). "Dose-response study of N,N-dimethyltryptamine in humans. II. Subjective effects and preliminary results of a new rating scale" (PDF). Archives of General Psychiatry. 51 (2): 98–108. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950020022002. eISSN 1538-3636. ISSN 2168-622X. PMID 8297217. 
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  11. Pachter I. J.; Zacharias D. E.; Ribeiro O. (1959). "Indole alkaloids of Acer saccharinum (the silver maple), Dictyoloma incanescens, Piptadenia colubrina, and Mimosa hostilis". The Journal of Organic Chemistry. 24 (9): 1285–87. doi:10.1021/jo01091a032. eISSN 1520-6904. ISSN 0022-3263. 
  12. Fish M. S.; Johnson N. M.; Horning E. C. (1955). "Piptadenia alkaloids. Indole bases of P. peregrina (L.) Benth. and related species". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 72 (22): 5892–95. doi:10.1021/ja01627a034. eISSN 1520-5126. ISSN 0002-7863. 
  13. Cimino G.; De Stefano S. (1978). "Chemistry of Mediterranean gorgonians: simple indole derivatives from Paramuricea chamaeleon". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C. 61 (2): 361–2. doi:10.1016/0306-4492(78)90070-9. 
  14. Erowid DMT Vault : Profiles of Psychedelic Drugs - DMT 
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  16. https://www.dmt-nexus.me/forum/default.aspx?g=posts&m=11514&#post11514
  17. https://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal06.shtml
  18. https://wiki.dmt-nexus.me/Ingestion_Methods
  19. https://www.erowid.org/plants/mimosa/mimosa_info2.shtml
  20. https://www.dmt-nexus.me/forum/default.aspx?g=posts&t=10624&p=1
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  26. 26.0 26.1 Timmermann, C., Roseman, L., Williams, L., Erritzoe, D., Martial, C., Cassol, H., Laureys, S., Nutt, D., Carhart-Harris, R. (15 August 2018). "DMT Models the Near-Death Experience". Frontiers in Psychology. 9: 1424. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01424. ISSN 1664-1078. 
  27. 27.0 27.1 Martial, C; Cassol, H; Charland-Verville, V; Pallavicini, C; Sanz, C; Zamberlan, F; Vivot, RM; Erowid, F; Erowid, E; Laureys, S; Greyson, B; Tagliazucchi, E (March 2019). "Neurochemical models of near-death experiences: A large-scale study based on the semantic similarity of written reports". Consciousness and cognition. 69: 52–69. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.01.011. PMID 30711788. 
  28. Strassman, Rick J. (2001). DMT: The Spirit Molecule. A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences. Rochester, Vt: Park Street. ISBN 978-0-89281-927-0. OCLC 45195642.  ("Chapter summaries". Retrieved 27 February 2012. )
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