Naturally occurring sources

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Artwork from the cover of Hallucinogenic Plants (A Golden Guide)

Naturally occurring sources refers to psychoactive chemicals or their precursors that already exist in nature. This is in contrast to synthetic psychoactive compounds which are artificially produced or designed in laboratories. These natural chemicals can often be reproduced synthetically as well, though notably they appear in nature or through human cultivation.

Proposed origins

There are a variety of proposed reasons for the appearance of psychoactive substances in organisms including the following examples:

Selective breeding

Selective breeding is a method used by cultivators to add or remove traits from successive generations of organisms by breeding together those that have the preferred properties in hopes of developing a desirable genetic strain. This may have resulted in both the potency and appearance of psychoactive substance(s) which the cultivators wished to produce.[1]

Defence mechanism

Another proposed reason for the presence of psychoactive substances in nature is their use as a defence mechanism. Through natural selection an organism may develop a poison or toxin useful for fending off predators,[2] as can be seen in Latrodectus Spiders who's psychoactive Latrotoxin has no reward value, and instead poses a threat to others.

Reward symbiosis

It is also possible that co-evolution encouraged psychoactive organisms to appear as a means of propagation. That is; in the same way sweet fruits were naturally selected by animals spreading their contained seeds, so were psychoactive flora that posed some benefit to the animals.[3]

Genetic similarity

An incidental cause of the prevalence of these substances is the shared genetic origins of the organisms. Given that they share a great deal of genetic code it is reasonable to assume that this may have been a factor in producing chemicals similar enough to neurotransmitters so as to activate receptor sites. For example many psychoactive chemicals are biosynthesized from amino acids such as tryptophan, while in humans this amino acid is used to make serotonin. The result is that some of the tryptamines in nature are serotonergic agonists when consumed.

Historical significance

The use of psychoactive substances is deeply rooted in human culture and dates back to pre-history. Early societies often incorporated these organisms into their traditions in medicine, spirituality, or recreation, such as the use of soma in the origins of Hinduism, and many of these uses continue into the modern day. Some common examples of this are the use of wine containing Ethanol in Christian communion, and Ayahuasca among indigenous peoples of the Amazon.

Many of these organisms have been instrumental to the progress of various scientific fields, such as Biology, Medicine, Psychonautics, and continue to reveal their importance with their involvement in major discoveries, such as the discovery of cannabinoid receptors[4] preceding our knowledge of endocannabinoids.[5]

Precluding endogenous chemicals, many of these organisms served as humanities only means of altering neurochemistry until the advent of synthetic psychoactives during the modern age. They have been at the forefront of major historical developments, such as pharmacotherapy, the funding of organized crime, the psychedelic era of the 60's, and the current "War on Drugs".

Examples

Below is an index of articles regarding natural sources of psychoactive substances. Other than inanimate sources they are categorized by kingdom of organism with sections for each applicable class of psychoactivity, sub-sections are given to active constituents, and finally the taxonomy and common name. Names may appear more than once if they contain a variety of substances, or their active substance has a variety of effects. Please note the quantity of substance obtained through an organism is not always safe and/or effective at common levels of consumption, but they are here included for sake of completeness. In addition some of the organisms are toxic or dangerous and thus proper research and preparation is recommended before attempting to personally investigate their activity.

Botanical sources
Leaf.svg

Farming techniques
Plant growth icon.svg

Datasheets
File-text-o.svg

    • Hardiness zones
    • Legality
    • Optimal growing temperatures
    • Optimal humidity levels

Botanical sources (Unknown)
Leaf.svg

  • Mechanism of action in these plants are unknown :
    • Plectranthus genus (formerly Coleus)
    • Ranunculus genus

Mycological sources
Mushroom.png

Farming techniques
Plant growth icon.svg

Datasheets
File-text-o.svg

    • Hardiness zones
    • Legality
    • Optimal humidity levels
    • Optimal growing temperatures

Zoological sources
Wipp-Frog-silhouette.svg

These animals produce venom used for self-defense against predators. Invertebrates like insects deliver stings, or bites, whilst vertebrates like frogs and toads are "milked" for secretion that are either smoked (eg. Colorado River Toad) or burned into the skin (eg. kambo).

  • Psychedelics

    • 5-Br-DMT
      • Smenospongia aurea
      • Smenospongia echina
      • Verongula rigida
    • 5-HO-DMT (bufotenin)
      • Homo sapiens (humans)
        • Autistic people
        • Schizophrenic people
      • Tree frogs
        • Hyla Spp.
        • Litoria Spp.
        • Rana Spp.
    • Bufotoxins

  • Deliriants

    • Poneratoxin
      • Paraponera clavata (Bullet ant)

  • Dissociatives

    • NMDA receptor antagonists
      • Agatoxin
        • Agelenopsis aperta (Funnel web spider)
      • Argiotoxin
        • Araneus gemma (Cat-faced Spider)
        • Argiope lobata
      • Joro toxin
        • Nephila clavata (Joro spider)

  • Cannabinoids

    • Serinolamide A
      • Bacteria
        • Lyngbya majuscula
        • Oscillatoria

  • Stimulants

    • Latrotoxin (acetylcholine release)
      • Latrodectus (black or brown widow spiders)
    • Latrotoxin (norepinephrine release)
      • Latrodectus (black or brown widow spiders)

  • Depressants

    • GABAergic
      • Latrotoxin
        • Latrodectus (black or brown widow spiders)
    • Opioids
      • Deltorphins, and dermorphin
        • Phyllomedusa bicolor secretion (kambo)

  • Atypical

    • Apis (Honey bee)
      • Honey containing psychoactive(s)
    • Hallucinogenic fish
      • Unknown constituents
    • Homo sapiens (Humans)
      • Synthetic psychoactives
      • Urine containing psychoactive(s)

Farming techniques
Plant growth icon.svg

    • Artificial habitats
    • Breeding
    • Domestication
    • Non-Lethal extraction
    • Selective breeding

Datasheets
File-text-o.svg

    • Diet
    • Habitat
    • Legality

Inanimate sources
Atom.png

Datasheets
File-text-o.svg

    • Collection methods
    • Common locations

External links

References

  1. ↑ ARTIFICIAL SELECTION: A POWERFUL TOOL FOR ECOLOGISTS | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/0012-9658(2003)084%5B1650:ASAPTF%5D2.0.CO;2/abstract
  2. ↑ Nicotine's Defensive Function in Nature | http://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/article?id=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020217
  3. ↑ Evolution And Addiction | http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00086.x/abstract
  4. ↑ Determination and characterization of a cannabinoid receptor in rat brain | http://molpharm.aspetjournals.org/content/34/5/605.long
  5. ↑ The Discovery of the Endocannabinoid System | http://www.beyondthc.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/eCBSystemLee.pdf
  6. ↑ Studies on the alkaloid composition of the Hawaiian Baby Woodrose Argyreia nervosa, a common legal high | http://www.fsijournal.org/article/S0379-0738(15)00074-2/abstract
  7. ↑ Chao JM, Der Marderosian AH (1973). "Ergoline alkaloidal constituents of Hawaiian baby wood rose, Argyreia nervosa (Burmf) Bojer". J. Pharm. Sci. 62 (4): 588–91. doi:10.1002/jps.2600620409. 
  8. ↑ Argyreia osyrensis Wikipedia |
  9. ↑ Stictocardia queenslandica Wikipedia
  10. ↑ The Pharmacological and Epidemiological Aspects of Adolescent Drug Dependance pg 79 | https://books.google.ca/books?id=CQclBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80&lpg=PA80&dq=turbina+corymbosa+alkaloid+content&source=bl&ots=RrOmUa544R&sig=lglxyvKtI-LOxmM0Bqu8GXhqWQY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjCg_rakKDMAhVjuIMKHZWTBxoQ6AEIZjAJ#v=onepage&q=ipomoea%20violacea&f=false
  11. ↑ "Show Plant". phytochem.nal.usda.gov (in English). 
  12. ↑ "Show Plant". phytochem.nal.usda.gov (in English). 
  13. ↑ The Pharmacological and Epidemiological Aspects of Adolescent Drug Dependance pg 80 | https://books.google.ca/books?id=CQclBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80&lpg=PA80&dq=turbina+corymbosa+alkaloid+content&source=bl&ots=RrOmUa544R&sig=lglxyvKtI-LOxmM0Bqu8GXhqWQY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjCg_rakKDMAhVjuIMKHZWTBxoQ6AEIZjAJ#v=onepage&q=turbina%20corymbosa%20alkaloid%20content&f=false
  14. ↑ "Ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa) im GIFTPFLANZEN.COMpendium - giftpflanzen.com". www.giftpflanzen.com. Retrieved 2008-04-18. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 New mescaline concentrations from 14 taxa/cultivars of Echinopsis spp. (Cactaceae) (“San Pedro”) and their relevance to shamanic practice | http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.668.3565&rep=rep1&type=pdf
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 Alkaloid content in relation to ethnobotanical use of Trichocereus pachanoi and related taxa | http://gradworks.umi.com/14/78/1478388.html
  17. ↑ Cactus alkaloids. XXXVI. Mescaline and related compounds from Trichocereus peruvianus. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/600028
  18. ↑ Cactus Alkaloids. I. Trichocereus terscheckii (Parmentier) Britton and Rose | http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ja01148a097
  19. ↑ Lophophora | https://www.erowid.org/plants/cacti/cacti_guide/cacti_guide_lophopho.shtml
  20. ↑ Lophophora diffusa (Croizat) Bravo | http://sacredcacti.com/blog/diffusa/
  21. ↑ [Estimation of mescaline and pellotine in Lophophora coulter plants (Cactaceae) by means of the oscillographic polarography]. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/647075
  22. ↑ Lophophora | https://www.erowid.org/plants/cacti/cacti_guide/cacti_guide_lophopho.shtml
  23. ↑ Lophophora diffusa (Croizat) Bravo | http://sacredcacti.com/blog/diffusa/
  24. ↑ Lophophora | https://www.erowid.org/plants/cacti/cacti_guide/cacti_guide_lophopho.shtml
  25. ↑ [Estimation of mescaline and pellotine in Lophophora coulter plants (Cactaceae) by means of the oscillographic polarography]. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/647075
  26. ↑ Lophophora | https://www.erowid.org/plants/cacti/cacti_guide/cacti_guide_lophopho.shtml
  27. ↑ [Estimation of mescaline and pellotine in Lophophora coulter plants (Cactaceae) by means of the oscillographic polarography]. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/647075
  28. ↑ Lophophora | https://www.erowid.org/plants/cacti/cacti_guide/cacti_guide_lophopho.shtml
  29. ↑ Reported analysis of Lophophora williamsii | http://sacredcacti.com/blog/lophophora-williamsii-analysis/
  30. ↑ Arundo donax mentioned in "DMT is Everywhere" | https://www.erowid.org/plants/arundo_donax/arundo_donax_info2.shtml
  31. ↑ Phalaris FAQ | https://www.erowid.org/plants/phalaris/phalaris_faq.shtml
  32. ↑ Bufotenin | https://wiki.dmt-nexus.me/Bufotenin#Phalaris_spp.
  33. ↑ Arundo donax mentioned in "DMT is Everywhere" | https://www.erowid.org/plants/arundo_donax/arundo_donax_info2.shtml
  34. ↑ Pharmacotheon page 246 | https://books.google.ca/books?id=VMjwAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=delosperma
  35. ↑ Phalaris FAQ | https://www.erowid.org/plants/phalaris/phalaris_faq.shtml
  36. ↑ Tryptamine Carriers FAQ | http://deoxy.org/trypfaq.htm#phalaris
  37. ↑ ALKALOID CONTENT OF REED CANARYGRASS (Phalaris arundinaceae L.) AS DETERMINED BY GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY | http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.4141/cjps90-132#.VxkL5_krJhE
  38. ↑ Arundo donax mentioned in "DMT is Everywhere" | https://www.erowid.org/plants/arundo_donax/arundo_donax_info2.shtml
  39. ↑ Pharmacotheon page 246 | https://books.google.ca/books?id=VMjwAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=delosperma
  40. ↑ Chemotaxonomie der Pflanzen: Band XIb-1: Leguminosae Teil 2: Caesalpinioideae und Mimosoideae | https://books.google.ca/books?id=bUV8C6iLFkEC&q=199#v=snippet&q=199&f=false
  41. ↑ Pharmahuasca, Anahuasca and Vinho da Jurema: Human Pharmacology of Oral DMT Plus Harmine | http://web.archive.org/web/20120124034100/http://www.santodaime.it/Library/NATURALSCIENCES/ott98a_english.htm
  42. ↑ Tryptamine Carriers FAQ | http://deoxy.org/trypfaq.htm#phalaris
  43. ↑ Phalaris FAQ | https://www.erowid.org/plants/phalaris/phalaris_faq.shtml
  44. ↑ Pharmacotheon page 246 | https://books.google.ca/books?id=VMjwAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=phragmites+australis
  45. ↑ Psychotria viridis DMT Contents and Dosages | https://www.erowid.org/plants/psychotria/psychotria_info1.shtml
  46. ↑ Shulgin, A. & Shulgin, A. 1997. TIHKAL. Transform Press, California.
  47. ↑ Acacia longifolia Wikipedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_longifolia
  48. ↑ Acacia maidenii Wikipedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_maidenii
  49. ↑ Acacia obtusifolia Wikipedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_obtusifolia
  50. ↑ Acacia simplex Wikipedia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia_simplex
  51. ↑ Banisteriopsis muricata |
  52. ↑ Banisteriopsis caapi |
  53. ↑ Alicia anisopetala |
  54. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  55. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  56. ↑ Extraction Studies of Tabernanthe Iboga and Voacanga Africana | http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1057563029001/4881#.Vxu8Y_krJhE
  57. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  58. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  59. ↑ Extraction Studies of Tabernanthe Iboga and Voacanga Africana | http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1057563029001/4881#.Vxu8Y_krJhE
  60. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  61. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Opioid activity of alkaloids extracted from Picralima nitida (fam. Apocynaceae). (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9683021
  63. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  64. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  65. ↑ Extraction Studies of Tabernanthe Iboga and Voacanga Africana | http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1057563029001/4881#.Vxu8Y_krJhE
  66. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  67. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  68. ↑ Extraction Studies of Tabernanthe Iboga and Voacanga Africana | http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1057563029001/4881#.Vxu8Y_krJhE
  69. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  70. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  71. ↑ Nepetalactone: a new opioid analgesic from Nepeta caesarea Boiss. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9720633
  72. ↑ Structure and stereochemistry 4a.beta.,7.alpha.,7a.beta.-nepetalactone from Nepeta mussini and its relationship to the 4a.alpha.,7.alpha.,7a.alpha.- and 4a.alpha.,7.alpha.,7a.beta.-nepetalactones from N. cataria | http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jo01307a016
  73. ↑ Salvia divinorum drug profile| http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/salvia
  74. ↑ Salvia Recognita drug profile| https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28722248/
  75. ↑ Salvia Glutinosa drug profile| https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/m/pubmed/28722248/
  76. ↑ http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-50532008000500021 | http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0103-50532008000500021
  77. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  78. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  79. ↑ Extraction Studies of Tabernanthe Iboga and Voacanga Africana | http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1057563029001/4881#.Vxu8Y_krJhE
  80. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  81. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  82. ↑ Extraction Studies of Tabernanthe Iboga and Voacanga Africana | http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1057563029001/4881#.Vxu8Y_krJhE
  83. ↑ The Anti-Addiction Drug Ibogaine and the Heart: A Delicate Relation (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4382526/
  84. ↑ IBOGAINE: A REVIEW | http://www.iceers.org/docs/science/iboga/Ibogaine%20Proceedings/ch01_Review_Alper.pdf
  85. ↑ Jansen, S. A., Kleerekooper, I., Hofman, Z. L., Kappen, I. F., Stary-Weinzinger, A., & van der Heyden, M. A. (2012). Grayanotoxin Poisoning:‘Mad Honey Disease’ and Beyond. Cardiovascular Toxicology, 12(3), 208-215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12012-012-9162-2
  86. ↑ Opioid activity of alkaloids extracted from Picralima nitida (fam. Apocynaceae). (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9683021
  87. ↑ Opioid activity of alkaloids extracted from Picralima nitida (fam. Apocynaceae). (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9683021
  88. ↑ Nepetalactone: a new opioid analgesic from Nepeta caesarea Boiss. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9720633
  89. ↑ Structure and stereochemistry 4a.beta.,7.alpha.,7a.beta.-nepetalactone from Nepeta mussini and its relationship to the 4a.alpha.,7.alpha.,7a.alpha.- and 4a.alpha.,7.alpha.,7a.beta.-nepetalactones from N. cataria | http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jo01307a016
  90. ↑ Quality components and antidepressant-like effects of GABA green tea. | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28836632
  91. ↑ Effect of GABA-Fortified Oolong Tea on Reducing Stress in a University Student Cohort. | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30972340
  92. ↑ Identification of the putative binding pocket of valerenic acid on GABAA receptors using docking studies and site-directed mutagenesis. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26375408
  93. ↑ Human monoamine oxidase enzyme inhibition by coffee and β-carbolines norharman and harman isolated from coffee | https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0024320505007514
  94. ↑ Lophophora | https://www.erowid.org/plants/cacti/cacti_guide/cacti_guide_lophopho.shtml
  95. ↑ Lophophora diffusa (Croizat) Bravo | http://sacredcacti.com/blog/diffusa/
  96. ↑ [Estimation of mescaline and pellotine in Lophophora coulter plants (Cactaceae) by means of the oscillographic polarography]. (PubMed.gov / NCBI) | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/647075
  97. ↑ Lophophora | https://www.erowid.org/plants/cacti/cacti_guide/cacti_guide_lophopho.shtml
  98. ↑ Reported analysis of Lophophora williamsii | http://sacredcacti.com/blog/lophophora-williamsii-analysis/
  99. ↑ ALKALOID CONTENT OF REED CANARYGRASS (Phalaris arundinaceae L.) AS DETERMINED BY GAS-LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY | http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.4141/cjps90-132#.VxkL5_krJhE
  100. ↑ 100.0 100.1 100.2 Huhn, C., Pütz, M., Dahlenburg, R., & Pyell, U. (2005). Sassafras oils as precursors for the production of synthetic drugs: profiling via MEKC-UVD. In Beiträge zum XIV GTFCh-Symposium: Ausgewaehlte Aspekte der Forensischen Toxikologie (pp. 14-16). https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Puetz/publication/270219373_Sassafras_oils_as_precursors_for_the_production_of_synthetic_drugs_Profiling_via_MEKC-UVD/links/54a33d5d0cf256bf8bb0e18a.pdf
  101. ↑ (2R), (1'R) and (2R), (1'S)-2-amino-3-(1,2-dicarboxyethylthio)propanoic acids from Amanita pantherina. Antagonists of N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors. | http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8477498
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